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.Literature, most generically, is any body of written works. More restrictively, literature refers to writing considered to be an art form or any single writing deemed to have artistic or intellectual value, often due to deploying language in ways that differ from ordinary usage.Its Latin root literatura/ litteratura (derived itself from littera: letter or handwriting) was used to refer to all written accounts.
The concept has changed meaning over time to include texts that are spoken or sung , and non-written verbal art forms. Have allowed an ever-growing distribution and proliferation of written works, culminating in.Literature is classified according to whether it is or, and whether it is. It can be further distinguished according to major forms such as the, or; and works are often categorized according to historical periods or their adherence to certain features or expectations.
Contents.Definitions Definitions of literature have varied over time: it is a 'culturally relative definition'. In prior to the 18th century, literature denoted all books and writing. A more restricted sense of the term emerged during the, in which it began to demarcate 'imaginative' writing. Contemporary debates over what constitutes literature can be seen as returning to older, more inclusive notions;, for instance, takes as its subject of analysis both popular and minority genres, in addition to.The definition of literature considers it to cover exclusively those writings that possess high quality or distinction, forming part of the so-called ('fine writing') tradition. This sort of definition is that used in the (1910–11) when it classifies literature as 'the best expression of the best thought reduced to writing.'
Problematic in this view is that there is no objective definition of what constitutes 'literature': anything can be literature, and anything which is universally regarded as literature has the potential to be excluded, since value judgments can change over time.The definition is that 'literature' foregrounds poetic effects; it is the 'literariness' or 'poetic' of literature that distinguishes it from ordinary speech or other kinds of writing (e.g., ). Jim Meyer considers this a useful characteristic in explaining the use of the term to mean published material in a particular field (e.g., '), as such writing must use language according to particular standards. The problem with the formalist definition is that in order to say that literature deviates from ordinary uses of language, those uses must first be identified; this is difficult because ' is an unstable category, differing according to social categories and across history., the term derives from literatura/litteratura 'learning, a writing, grammar,' originally 'writing formed with letters,' from litera/littera 'letter'. In spite of this, the term has also been applied to. Genres is a mode of categorizing literature.
A French term for 'a literary type or class'. However, such classes are subject to change, and have been used in different ways in different periods and traditions.History. With for the name ', from the,The history of literature follows closely the development of.
When defined exclusively as written work, along with, are considered the world's. The primary of the literature of — texts, hymns and prayers, and tales—were written almost entirely in verse; while use of poetic devices is clearly recognizable, the of the verse is unknown.
Most is apparently, as it is written in left-justified lines, and could contain line-based organization such as the or the,Different historical periods are reflected in literature. National and tribal sagas, accounts of the origin of the world and of customs, and myths which sometimes carry moral or spiritual messages predominate in the pre-urban eras. The epics of, dating from the early to middle, and the great of a slightly later period, have more evidence of deliberate literary authorship, surviving like the older myths through oral tradition for long periods before being written down.Literature in all its forms can be seen as written records, whether the literature itself be factual or fictional, it is still quite possible to decipher facts through things like characters' actions and words or the authors' style of writing and the intent behind the words. The plot is for more than just entertainment purposes; within it lies information about economics, psychology, science, religions, politics, cultures, and social depth. Studying and analyzing literature becomes very important in terms of learning about human history. Literature provides insights about how society has evolved and about the societal norms during each of the different periods all throughout history. For instance, authors argue that history and fiction both constitute systems of signification by which we make sense of the past.
It is asserted that both of these are 'discourses, signifying systems, and both derive their major claim to truth from that identity.' Literature provides views of life, which is crucial in obtaining truth and in understanding human life throughout history and its periods. Specifically, it explores the possibilities of living in terms of certain values under given social and historical circumstances.Literature helps us understand references made in more modern literature because authors often reference mythology and other old religious texts to describe ancient civilizations such as the Hellenes and the Egyptians.
Not only is there literature written on each of the aforementioned topics themselves, and how they have evolved throughout history (like a book about the history of economics or a book about evolution and science, for example) but one can also learn about these things in fictional works. Authors often include historical moments in their works, like when Lord Byron talks about the Spanish and the French in 'Childe Harold's Pilgrimage: Canto I' and expresses his opinions through his character Childe Harold.
Through literature we are able to continuously uncover new information about history. It is easy to see how all academic fields have roots in literature. Information became easier to pass down from generation to generation once we began to write it down. Eventually everything was written down, from things like home remedies and cures for illness, or how to build shelter to traditions and religious practices. From there people were able to study literature, improve on ideas, further our knowledge, and academic fields such as the medical field or trades could be started.
In much the same way as the literature that we study today continue to be updated as we continue to evolve and learn more and more.As a more urban culture developed, academies provided a means of transmission for speculative and philosophical literature in early civilizations, resulting in the prevalence of literature in,. Many works of earlier periods, even in narrative form, had a covert moral or didactic purpose, such as the Sanskrit or the of Ovid. And also developed as urban culture provided a larger public audience, and later readership, for literary production.
(as opposed to epic poetry) was often the speciality of courts and aristocratic circles, particularly in East Asia where songs were collected by the Chinese aristocracy as poems, the most notable being the Shijing. Over a long period, the poetry of popular pre-literate balladry and song interpenetrated and eventually influenced poetry in the literary medium.In ancient China, early literature was primarily focused on philosophy, agriculture,. China, the origin of modern and, produced the world's first. Much of Chinese literature originates with the period that occurred during the (769‒269 BCE). The most important of these include the Classics of, of, of, of, as well as works of military science (e.g. 's ) and (e.g. Ancient Chinese literature had a heavy emphasis on historiography, with often very detailed court records.
An exemplary piece of of ancient China was the, which was compiled no later than 389 BCE, and attributed to the blind 5th-century BCE historian.In ancient India, literature originated from stories that were originally orally transmitted. Early genres included,.
Begins with the, dating back to 1500–1000 BCE, and continues with the of. The Vedas are among the. The Samhitas (vedic collections) date to roughly 1500–1000 BCE, and the 'circum-Vedic' texts, as well as the of the Samhitas, date to c. 1000‒500 BCE, resulting in a, spanning the mid-2nd to mid 1st millennium BCE, or the and the. The period between approximately the 6th to 1st centuries BCE saw the composition and redaction of the two most influential Indian epics, the and the, with subsequent redaction progressing down to the 4th century AD. Other major literary works are & Krishnacharitmanas.In ancient Greece, the epics of, who wrote the and the, and, who wrote and, are some of the earliest, and most influential, of Ancient Greek literature. Classical Greek genres included philosophy, historiography,.
And authored philosophical texts that are the foundation of, and were influential, and and were early Greek historians. Although drama was popular in Ancient Greece, of the hundreds of written and performed during the, only a limited number of plays by three authors still exist:,. The plays of provide the only real examples of a genre of comic drama known as, the earliest form of Greek Comedy, and are in fact used to define the genre.
One of the most prolific writersRoman histories and biographies anticipated the extensive mediaeval literature of lives of saints and miraculous chronicles, but the most characteristic form of the was the, an adventurous and sometimes magical narrative with strong popular appeal. Controversial, religious, political and instructional literature proliferated during the Renaissance as a result of the invention of printing, while the mediaeval romance developed into a more character-based and psychological form of narrative, the, of which early and important examples are the Chinese and the German books.In the philosophical tracts and speculations on history and human nature integrated literature with social and political developments. The inevitable reaction was the explosion of in the later 18th century which reclaimed the imaginative and fantastical bias of old romances and folk-literature and asserted the primacy of individual experience and emotion. But as the 19th century went on, European fiction evolved towards and, the meticulous documentation of real life and social trends. Much of the output of naturalism was implicitly polemical, and influenced social and political change, but 20th century fiction and drama moved back towards the subjective, emphasizing unconscious motivations and social and environmental pressures on the individual. Writers such as, and exemplify the trend of documenting internal rather than external realities.also showed it could question reality in its 20th century forms, in spite of its fixed formulas, through the enquiries of the skeptical and the alternative realities of. The separation of 'mainstream' and 'genre' forms (including journalism) continued to blur during the period up to our own times., in his early works, and expanded documentary reporting into strong subjective statements after the, and critics have disparaged the idea of objective realism in general.Psychology and literature Theorists suggest that literature allows readers to access intimate emotional aspects of a person's character that would not be obvious otherwise.
That literature aids the psychological development and understanding of the reader, allowing someone to access emotional states from which they had distanced themselves. Mitchell, for example, explains how one author used young adult literature to describe a state of 'wonder' she had experienced as a child. There are also those who focus on the significance of literature in an individual's psychological development. For example, language learning uses literature because it articulates or contains culture, which is an element considered crucial in learning a language. This is demonstrated in the case of a study that revealed how the presence of cultural values and culturally familiar passages in literary texts played an important impact on the performance of minority students in English reading.
Psychologists have also been using literature as a tool or therapeutic vehicle for people, to help them understand challenges and issues. An example is the integration of subliminal messages in literary texts or the rewriting of traditional narratives to help readers address their problems or mold them into contemporary social messages.Hogan also explains that the time and emotion which a person devotes to understanding a character's situation makes literature 'ecologically valid in the study of emotion'.
That is literature unites a large community by provoking universal emotions, as well as allowing readers to access cultural aspects that they have not been exposed to, and that produce new emotional experiences. Theorists argue that authors choose literary device according to what psychological emotion they are attempting to describe.Some psychologists regard literature as a valid research tool, because it allows them to discover new psychological ideas.
Psychological theories about literature, such as have become universally recognized.Psychologist 'Third Force Psychology Theory' helps literary analysts to critically understand how characters reflect the culture and the history to which they belong. It also allows them to understand the author's intention and psychology. The theory suggests that human beings possess within them their true 'self' and that the fulfillment of this is the reason for living.
It also suggests that neurological development hinders actualizing this and a person becomes estranged from his or her true self. Maslow argues that literature explores this struggle for self-fulfillment. Paris in his 'Third Force Psychology and the Study of Literature' argues that 's 'pristine unconscious' is a metaphor for the real self'. Literature, it is here suggested, is therefore a tool that allows readers to develop and apply critical reasoning to the nature of emotions.Poetry. These are a type of poem in which the written words are arranged in such a way to produce a visual image.Poetry is a form of literary art which uses the qualities of language (including and ) to evoke meanings beyond a paraphrase. Poetry has traditionally been distinguished from by its being set in; prose is cast in, poetry in; the of prose is dictated by meaning, whereas that of poetry is held across meter or the visual aspects of the poem.
This distinction is complicated by various hybrid forms such as the and, and more generally by the fact that prose possesses rhythm. Abram Lipsky refers to it as an 'open secret' that 'prose is not distinguished from poetry by lack of rhythm'.Prior to the 19th century, poetry was commonly understood to be something set in metrical lines; accordingly, in 1658 a definition of poetry is 'any kind of subject consisting of Rhythm or Verses'. Possibly as a result of 's influence (his ), 'poetry' before the 19th century was usually less a technical designation for verse than a normative category of fictive or rhetorical art. As a form it may pre-date, with the earliest works being composed within and sustained by an oral tradition; hence it constitutes the earliest example of literature.Prose. Main articles: andProse is a form of that possesses ordinary and, rather than a regular; in which regard, along with its in sentences rather than lines, it differs from most poetry.
However, developments in modern literature, including and have tended to blur any differences, and American poet suggested that while: 'the distinction between and prose is clear, the distinction between and prose is obscure'.On the historical development of prose, Richard Graff notes that 'In the case of recent scholarship has emphasized the fact that formal prose was a comparatively late development, an 'invention' properly associated with the '.Philosophical, historical, journalistic, and scientific writings are traditionally ranked as literature. They offer some of the oldest prose writings in existence; novels and prose stories earned the names 'fiction' to distinguish them from factual writing or nonfiction, which writers historically have crafted in prose.Fiction Novel. Main article:A novel is a long prose narrative. In English, the term emerged from the in the late 15th century, with the meaning of 'news'; it came to indicate something new, without a distinction between fact or fiction. The romance is a closely related long prose narrative.
Defined it as 'a fictitious narrative in prose or verse; the interest of which turns upon marvellous and uncommon incidents', whereas in the novel 'the events are accommodated to the ordinary train of human events and the modern state of society'. Other European languages do not distinguish between romance and novel: 'a novel is le roman, der Roman, il romanzo', indicates the proximity of the forms.Although there are many historical prototypes, so-called 'novels before the novel', the modern novel form emerges late in cultural history—roughly during the eighteenth century.
Initially subject to much criticism, the novel has acquired a dominant position amongst literary forms, both popularly and critically. Main article:In purely quantitative terms, the novella exists between the novel and short story; the publisher classifies it as 'too short to be a novel, too long to be a short story'. There is no precise definition in terms of word or page count. And often have their own arbitrary limits, which vary according to their particular intentions. Summarizing the variable definitions of the novella, William Giraldi concludes 'it is a form whose identity seems destined to be disputed into perpetuity'. It has been suggested that the size restriction of the form produces various stylistic results, both some that are shared with the novel or short story, and others unique to the form.
Short story. Main article:A dilemma in defining the 'short story' as a literary form is how to, or whether one should, distinguish it from any short narrative; hence it also has a contested origin, variably suggested as the earliest short narratives (e.g. The ), early short story writers (e.g. ), or the clearly modern short story writers (e.g. Apart from its distinct size, various theorists have suggested that the short story has a characteristic subject matter or structure; these discussions often position the form in some relation to the novel.
Main article:An consists of a discussion of a topic from an author's personal point of view, exemplified by works by. Genres related to the essay may include the and the.Natural science As advances and specialization have made new scientific research inaccessible to most audiences, the 'literary' nature of science writing has become less pronounced over the last two centuries.
Now, science appears mostly in. Scientific works of, and still exhibit great value, but since the science in them has largely become outdated, they no longer serve for scientific instruction. Yet, they remain too technical to sit well in most programs of literary study.
Outside of ' programs, students rarely read such works. Philosophy Philosophy has become an increasingly academic discipline. More of its practitioners lament this situation than occurs with the sciences; nonetheless most new philosophical work appears in. Major philosophers through history—, —have become as canonical as any writers. Philosophical writing spans from humanistic prose to formal, the latter having become extremely technical to a degree similar to that of. History A significant portion of historical writing ranks as literature, particularly the genre known as, as can a great deal of journalism, such as. However, these areas have become extremely large, and often have a primarily utilitarian purpose: to record data or convey immediate information.
As a result, the writing in these fields often lacks a literary quality, although it often (and in its better moments) has that quality. Major 'literary' historians include, and, all of whom count as canonical literary figures. Law offers more ambiguity. Some writings of and, the law tables of of, or even the early parts of the could be seen as legal literature. As codified in the during the reign of of the has a reputation as significant literature.
The founding documents of many countries, including and, can count as literature. Drama. Main article:Drama is literature intended for.
The form is often combined with music and dance, as in. A is a subset of this form, referring to the written dramatic work of a that is intended for performance in a theater; it comprises chiefly between, and usually aims at dramatic or theatrical performance rather than at reading. A, by contrast, refers to a play written to be read rather than to be performed; hence, it is intended that the meaning of such a work can be realized fully on the page.
Nearly all drama took verse form until comparatively recently.exemplifies the earliest form of drama of which we have substantial knowledge., as a dramatic, developed as a performance associated with and civic, typically enacting or developing upon well-known or themes. Tragedies generally presented very serious. With the advent of newer technologies, scripts written for non-stage media have been added to this form. In 1938 saw the advent of literature written for radio broadcast, and many works of Drama have been adapted for film or television. Conversely, television, film, and radio literature have been adapted to printed or electronic media.Other narrative forms.
is a literary genre consisting of works that originate in digital environments., videos and broadcast have carved out a niche which often parallels the functionality of prose fiction. and present stories told in a combination of sequential artwork, dialogue and text.Literary techniques. Main article:Literary technique and literary device are used by authors to produce specific effects.Literary techniques encompass a wide range of approaches: examples for fiction are, whether a work is narrated in, or from another perspective; whether a traditional linear narrative or a is used; the that is chosen.Literary devices involves specific elements within the work that make it effective. Examples include, narrative,. Even simple functions as a literary device.
In fiction is a literary device.Legal status. This section needs expansion. You can help. ( February 2014)United Kingdom Literary works have been protected by copyright law from unauthorized reproduction since at least 1710.
Literary works are defined by copyright law to mean any work, other than a dramatic or musical work, which is written, spoken or sung, and accordingly includes (a) a table or compilation (other than a database), (b) a computer program, (c) preparatory design material for a computer program, and (d) a database.Literary works are not limited to works of literature, but include all works expressed in print or writing (other than dramatic or musical works). Main article:There are numerous recognizing achievement and contribution in literature. Given the diversity of the field, awards are typically limited in scope, usually on: form, language, nationality and output (e.g. For first-time writers or ).The was one of the six established by the will of in 1895, and is awarded to an author on the basis of their body of work, rather than to, or for, a particular work itself. Other literary prizes for which all nationalities are eligible include: the, the, and the.See also. Biswas (2005). Atlantic Publishers & Dist.
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Ross, Trevor (1996). 63 (2): 397–422.:. Retrieved 9 February 2014. Further reading Major forms.